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(p. 865) Index
(p. 865) Index
Abacha, Sanni 630
Abidjan Peace Agreement 598
Abkhazia 448–9, 450
ceasefire 445
conflict in 443–4
declaration of independence 447
deteriorating security position in 447–8
Human Rights Office in Abkhazia, Georgia (HROAG) 447
Abu Nidal Organization 252
Abubakar, Abdusalam 631
abuses, and access to justice 55–6
Abyei 743, 745, 746, 747, 748, 749, 752
Agreement on Temporary Arrangements for the Administration and Security of the Abyei Area 820
conflict over 818–19
Abyei Boundary Commission 745
accountability 55
Acheson, Dean 200
Adoula, Cyrille 166
Afghanistan
Geneva Accords (1988) 270
NATO/United Nations cooperation 66
Soviet invasion of 269
Taliban 273
African Mission in Burundi (AMIB) 732
African National Congress 296
African Union (AU) 5, 60, 61, 595
Burundi 732
Regional Economic Communities 66
UN-AU Joint Task-Force on Peace and Security (JTF) 65
African Union Commission 65
African Union Mission in Somalia (AMISOM) 47
African Union/United Nations Hybrid Operation in Darfur (UNAMID) 65, 610
achievements of 783–5
assessment of 787–8
attacks on 787
background to 779–82
casualties 785
contributing countries 781
Darfuri criticism of 787
economic and social programmes 784
establishment of 782
factors contributing to shortcomings of 788
future of 788
humanitarian assistance 783–4
inadequate equipment 785
lack of conflict resolution framework 786
limitations of 785–7
mandate 781
promotion of peace process 784
safety of internally displaced persons (IDP) camps 783
Status of Forces Agreement 783
strength of 783
volatile security situation 785
Agwai, Martin 637
Al Sahaf, Muhammad Sa’id 318
Albanian National Liberation Army (NLA) 501
Algiers Peace Agreement (2000) 672
Alianza Republicana Nacionalista (ARENA) 351–2
Alliance of Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Congo (AFDL) 657
Alvim, Hugo Panasco 215
Amin, Hafizullah 269
Amorim, Celso 726
Amum, Pagan 838
Angle, Harry H 136
Angola 261
agreement for withdrawal of Cuban troops 286
Angolan Armed Forces 339
arrival of Cuban troops 285
inter/intra-state conflict 291
presidential elections (1992) 342
war of independence 283
Annan, Kofi 814
Bosnia 392
Côte d’Ivoire 709
Cyprus 205
Darfur 782
Democratic Republic of the Congo 661
humanitarian interventions 84–5
Iraq 318–19
Kosovo 623
Mozambique 423
non-combatant status of peacekeepers 52
Rwanda 467
Western Sahara 331
Ansar Dine 857
Anyidoho, Henry 476
Arab deterrent Force in Lebanon 46–7
Arab Movement for Azawad (MAA) 862
Arab Revolt 121
Arab-Israeli War (1967) 128
Arab-Israeli War (1973) 128
Arbour, Louise 809
armed conflicts
growth in use of peacekeeping operations 14–15
international humanitarian law 52–3
non-combatant status of peacekeepers 52–3
regional variations in utilization of peace operations 16–19
war onsets and peace operations 15
wars and peace operations (1946-2013) 36–41
Arusha Peace Accords (1993) 465–6
Arusha Peace and Reconciliation agreement for Burundi (2000) 731
al-Assad, Hafez 88
Association of Southeast Asian Countries (ASEAN) 364
Atto, Osman 435
Austin, Reginald 400
al-Badr, Mohammed 179
Bahamuddin, Mazlan 487
Baker, James A, III 331
Balaguer, Joaquín 219
Ballard, John 545
Ban Ki-moon 64–5, 623
Côte d’Ivoire 714
Cyprus 205
Darfur 784
Democratic Republic of the Congo 663
restructuring of UN Secretariat 610–11
Sudan 747
Bangladesh 137
Bangui Accords (1997) 589
Baril, J Maurice 467
Barrera, Antonio Imbert 217
Barroso, José Manuel 338
Belo, Carlos 645
Bennike, Vagn 126
Bernadotte, Count Folke 122
Betancourt, Rómulo 216
Biato, Marcel 726
Bio, Maada 598
Bir, Ҫvik 432
Boden, Dieter 448
Bokassa, Jean-Bédel 588
Boothby, Derek 522
(p. 868)
Bosnia 82, 261, 372
ceasefire (1995) 511
conflict in 383–4
international response to war in 385–6
Bota, Liviu 447
Botha, Roelof Frederik ‘Pik’ 302
Boutros-Ghali, Boutros 6, 342
Bosnia 387
Cyprus 205
El Salvador 356
factors affecting success of peacekeeping operations 266
Sierra Leone 598
state sovereignty 80
Bowden, Mark 430
Brahimi Report (2000) 89, 265, 266, 380, 392, 608–10, 629, 701
civilian protection 82
consent 49
defense of mission mandate 52
impartiality 609–10
need for effectiveness of UN forces on the ground 609
need for robust military component in operations 609
reassertion of peacekeeping principles 609
recommendations of 608–9
Brioni Agreement (1991) 373
Brosio, Manlio 201
Brunner, Edouard 445
Bulatović, Momir 535
Bundu dia Congo 662
burden-sharing 62
Burundi
African Mission in Burundi (AMIB) 732
Arusha Peace and Reconciliation agreement for Burundi (2000) 731
ceasefire (2002) 732
civil war 731
Dar-es-Salaam peace agreement (2006) 736
elections (2005) 735
elections (2010) 738
Transitional Government 732
Caamaño, Francisco 218
Cabral, Alfredo Lopes 582
Calderón Sol, Armando 358
Callaghan, James 202
(p. 869)
Capstone Doctrine (United Nations Peacekeeping Operations: Principles and Guidelines) 49–50, 265, 611, 751
Carney, Tim 403
Carrington, Lord 375
Carver, Michael 200
Cédras, Raoul 540
Central African Republic
African Union/United Nations cooperation 65
Bangui Accords (1997) 589
coup attempt (2001) 593
external military engagement in 594
French withdrawal 590
mutinies and protests 588
Central America
Cold War rivalries 306–7
Contadora peace process 307
San Isidro Declaration (1989) 309
Chad
border dispute with Libya 484–5
crisis in 791–2
European Force (EUFOR) 792
improved relations with Sudan 798
proxy war with Sudan 792
refugees in 792
Chagla, Mahomedali Currim 137
Chamoun, Camille 153
Chand, Prem 300
Charter of the United Nations
absence of peacekeeping from 2
Chapter IV 44
international peace and security 1
lack of legal basis for peacekeeping 43
limitations on sovereignty 79–80
peace operations 44
Chehab, Fouad 157
Chesterman, Simon 87
child soldiers 598
China 192–3
Central African Republic 591–2
Darfur 782
Lebanon 770
Macedonia, Former Yugoslav Republic of 504–5
Mali 862
Chivukuvuku, Abel 568
Chopra, Jarat 651
Christofias, Dimitris 205
Churchill, Winston 61
Churkin, Vitaly 846
Cold War
crisis of legitimacy for peacekeeping 118
impact of end of 261
peacekeeping operations 15–16
UN peacekeeping operations 189–96
Community of Sahel-Saharan States 594
confidence-building, and UN peacekeeping operations 6
Congolese Rally for Democracy (RCD) 657
Conseil National pour la Défense de la Démocratie - Forces pour la Défense de la Démocratie
Contadora peace process 307
Contras 306–7
Convention on the Criminal Accountability of United Nations Officials and Experts on Mission 56
Convention on the Privileges and Immunities of the United Nations (1946) 55
Cordier, Andrew 163
Côte d’Ivoire 82–3
arms embargo 711
ceasefire 708
civil war 707–8
context of civil war 707
ECOWAS Mission in Côte d’Ivoire (ECOMICI) 708
human rights abuses 711
Linas-Marcoussis Agreement (2003) 709
November 2004 crisis 710–11
Ouagadougou Peace Agreement (2007) 712
peace agreement (2003) 708
Peace Force for Côte d’Ivoire (ECOFORCE) 708
post-election crisis 713–14
presidential elections (2010) 713
Pretoria Agreement (2005) 711
targeted sanctions against 711
Cox, Katherine 52
Croatia 372
proclaims independence 372
see also United Nations Civilian Police Support Group in Croatia (UNPSG); United Nations Confidence Restoration Operation in Croatia (UNCRO); United Nations Mission of Observers in Prevlaka (UNMOP); United Nations Protection Force (UNPROFOR) in Croatia; United Nations Transitional Administration for Eastern Slavonia, Baranja and Western Sirmium (UNTAES)
Cruz, Viriato da 284
Cyprus 191
civil war (1963-64) 199
divisions within Greek Cypriot community 201–2
failure of Greek/Turkish negotiations (1974) 203–4
Greek-inspired coup d’etat (1974) 202
lack of progress towards solution 205
Daniel, Don 26
Darfur 610, 745, 779
African Union High-level Implementation Panel 747
African Union Mission 745
African Union Mission in Sudan (AMIS) 781–2
conflict in 779
Doha Document for Peace in Darfur 786
fatality numbers 779–80
international activism over 745
international neglect of 780
Darfur Peace Agreement (2006) 782
De Gaulle, Charles 4
De Hoop Scheffer, Jaap 66
Democratic Republic of the Congo
Belgian troops in 161
First Congo War 657
independence 160–1
Intervention Brigade 614
Lusaka Ceasefire Agreement (1999) 657
Nairobi communiqué (2007) 663
Operation Sovereign Legitimacy 14
Peace, Security and Cooperation Framework (PSC, 2013) 813
post-election violence 662
presidential elections (2006) 662
presidential elections (2011) 808–9
Pretoria Agreement (2002) 660
requests assistance form United Nations 161
Second Congo War 657
Stabilization and Reconstruction Plan for War Affected Areas (STAREC) 805
Sun City Agreement (2001) 660
violence against civilians 660
withdrawal of foreign forces 660
Desert Fox, Operation 318
Diallo, Issa 566
Dinka, Berhanu 598
Djukanović, Milo 535
Doha Document for Peace in Darfur 786
Dokmanović, Slavko 524
Dominican Republic
coup d’etat against Bosch (1963) 216
economic problems 218
human rights abuses 218
isolation of 216
political divisions 217–18
political settlement 218–19
Trujillo’s rule 216
Donald, Dominick 50
Dostum, Abdul Rashid 273
Doswald-Beck, louise 54
Duvalier, Baby Doc 540
Dziedzic, Michael 624
(p. 872)
East Timor 83, 607
agreement on referendum on future of 645
becomes independent 652
campaign for full independence 645
guerrilla war 644
invaded by Indonesia 644
liberation movement 643–4
multilateral missions in (1999-2002) 646
post-referendum violence 647
referendum (1999) 646–7
Santa Cruz massacre 645
United Nations supports self-determination 644
Economic and Monetary Community of Central africa 594
Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) 5, 23, 61, 65
Côte d’Ivoire peace negotiations 708
Liberia 454–5
Peace Force for Côte d’Ivoire (ECOFORCE) 708
Sierra Leone 597
ECOWAS Ceasefire Monitoring and Observation Group (ECOMOG)
ECOWAS Mission in Côte d’Ivoire (ECOMICI) 708
ECOWAS Mission in Liberia (ECOMIL) 695
Egeland, Jan 791
Ennifar, Azouz 679
Eritrea 671
Algiers Peace Agreement (2000) 672
demarcation of border with Ethiopia 677–8
isolation of 678
war with Ethiopia 671–2
Eritrea-Ethiopia Boundary Commission (EEBC) 677–8
Eroĝluin, Derviş 205
Espiel, Hector Gross 330
Ethiopia 671
Algiers Peace Agreement (2000) 672
demarcation of border with Eritrea 677–8
war with Eritrea 671–2
EUFOR RD Congo (EU) 63
EULEX Kosovo (EU) 63
European Community Conference on Yugoslavia 375
European Parliament, and Darfur 745
European Union (EU) 5, 14, 60, 594
Common Security and Defence Policy (CSDP) 63
European Security and Defense Policy 514
European Union Police Mission (Bosnia) 514
Macedonia, Former Yugoslav Republic of 501
Rule of Law Mission (EULEX) 618
evaluation of peace operations
analytical concerns 94–5
baseline for assessment 98–9
benchmarking 99
changes in missions 97
characteristics of indicators of success 104
comparing conditions before and after 99
conflict containment 102
conflict settlement 103
counter-factual analysis 98–9
criteria for success 102–4
formative evaluations 98
inaction basis 98
interactions among success dimensions 104–6
limited literature on 93
long-term perspective 97
mandate of mission as standard for 100
multidimensional peacekeeping 103
offsetting and reinforcing effects of factors 105
opportunity cost basis 98
organizational context 93
peacebuilding missions 103–4
reduction of violence 102
short-term perspective 96–7
standards of success 94
summative evaluations 98
timing of operation deployment 99
trumping effects of factors 105
types of peace operations 99–100
Faés, Géraldine 593
Falintil (Armed Forces for the National Liberation of East Timor) 644
Fanning, Steven 301
Farer, Tom 435
financing of peacekeeping operations 4
Fowler Report 569
Front pour la Démocratie au Burundi (FRODEBU) 731
Gambari, Ibrahim 786
Garrison, William 435
Gaye, Babacar 849
General Armistice Agreements (1949) 122, 123, 125, 127, 129, 145
Arab infiltration into Israel 125–6
Genocide Convention (1948) 84
Georhadjis, Polykarpos 209n
Germany, and Lebanon 771
Gersony, Robert 477
global financial crisis 608
Goa 643
Godoy, Héctor Garcia 218
Gomes, Pericles Ferreira 287
Gómez, Agustín Quesada 309
Gorbachev, Mikhail 290
Goudé Charles Blé 707
Gowan, Richard 777
Gray, Christine 49
Greenstock, Jeremy 638
Gromov, Boris 271
Guatemala
ceasefire 558
Commission for Historical Clarification 556
Comprehensive Agreement on Human Rights (1994) 556
conflict in 556
National reconciliation Commission 556
Gyani, Prem Singh 200
Habré, Hissène 485
Habyarimana, Juvenal 463
Haddad, Saad 251
Haekkerup, Hans 622
Haidar, Animatou 333
Haiti
cholera crisis 725–6
divisive impact of UN presence 725
formation of government of technocrats 720
Governors Island Agreement (GIA) 541
Haitian National Police (HNP) 541–2, 544, 547, 549–52, 572, 574, 575–6, 577, 580, 581, 582, 583, 584–5
joint UN-OAS mission 540
natural disasters 721
Operation Restore Democracy 540–1
paramilitary groups 723–4
riots over food prices 720–1
United Nations missions to 572–3
Hammarskjöld, Dag 3, 51, 81, 113, 116, 147
Arab-Israeli conflict 144–5
death of 165
legal basis of UN peacekeeping 48
Summary Study (1958) 117
Hannay, David 470
Harding Plan 215
Harston, Julian 582
Harvard Humanitarian Initiative 784
Hassan II, King of Morocco 326
Hekmatyar, Gulbuddin 273
Helminem, Rauli 271
High Council for the Unity of Azawad (HCUA) 862
Hillen, John 250
Holbrooke, Richard 511
Holden, Roberto 283
Houngbo, Gilbert 737
Houphouët-Boigny, Félix 707
Howe, Jonathan 435
Howen, Nicholas 346–7
Human Rights Council 89
human rights law, and peacekeeping operations 53–4
Human Rights Office in Abkhazia, Georgia (HROAG) 447
humanitarian interventions 14
absence of consent 83
abuse of 88
coercive nature of 78
coercive protection 86
compelling compliance 85–6
controversial nature of 84–5
definition of 78
ethical justification 84
history of 81–3
lack of definition of humanitarian 83
motives for 84
need for reform of peacekeeping 89–90
operational implications 85–6
terms for 85
United Nations’ incapability for 89
humanitarian law, international 52–3
Ibrahim, Khalil 798
Indian Independence Act (1947) 133
India-Pakistan War (1965) 136–7
India-Pakistan War (1971) 137
Indonesia
agrees to international force in East Timor 647
behavior in East Timor 645
concessions to East Timor 645
impact of end of Cold War 645
relations with Timor-Leste 688
United Nations Good Offices Commission 28
Inönü, Izmet 200
Inter-American Human Rights Commission 218
Interim Emergency Multinational Force (EU) 658
International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty (ICISS) 81
International Conference of the Great Lakes (ICGL) 663
International Contact Group on Liberia (ICGL) 695
International Court of Justice (ICJ) 537
Nicaragua vs the United States (1986) 83
Western Sahara 326
International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights 53
International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR) 473
International Crisis Group 780
international law, and peacekeeping 43, 56–7
access to justice 55–6
accountability 55
functions of 43
international human rights law 53–4
international humanitarian law 52–3
regional organizations 46–7
responsibility to protect (RtoP) 88
see also Charter of the United Nations
International Law Commission (ILC), Draft Articles on the Responsibility of International
International Security and Stabilisation Support Strategy (ISSSS) 805
inter-organizational relations in peacekeeping, see United Nations-regional organization (UN-RO)
partnerships
Iran-Iraq War (1980-88) 275–6
Israel
declaration of independence 122
Egyptian-Israeli peace agreement 232–3
invasion of Lebanon (1982) 252
Israel-Jordan Treaty of Peace 129
occupation of southern Lebanon 253
Operation Change of Direction (2006) 767
Oslo Accords (1993) 129
Suez crisis (1956) 145
Jackson, Michael 619
Janvier, Bernard 387
Jensen, Erik 330
Jessen-Petersen, Søren 623
Johnson, Lyndon B 200
Jospin, Lionel 590
justice, access to 55
Kadijevic, Veljko 375
Kapila, Mukesh 780
Karadzic, Radovan 383
Karim, Ataul 366
Karmal, Babrak 269
Keita, Boubacar 861
Kennedy, John F 173
Khan, Said Uddin 174
Khiary, Mahmood 165
Kitona Declaration (1961) 166
Kittani, Ismat 412
Konaré, Alpha Oumar 782
Korean War 115
Kosovo 22, 69, 504, 536, 607
ethnic divide 620
ethnic violence (2004) 623
European Union Rule of Law Mission (EULEX) 618
unilateral declaration of independence 623
Kumar, Siva 480
Kyprianou, Spyros 205
Lajara, Horacio Vásquez 215
Lara, Lúcio 284
Latortue, Gérard 720
Lauterpacht, Elihu 677
Lawrence, Roger 403
League of Arab States 153
Lebanon
American forces in 156
Israeli invasion of (1982) 252
Israeli occupation of southern Lebanon 253
Israel’s Operation Change of Direction (2006) 767
Lebanese Crisis of 1958 153
outbreak of civil war (1975) 129
Taief Agreement (1989) 253
withdrawal of Israeli troops (1978) 251
withdrawal of Israeli troops (2000) 253–4
Lesotho, Operation Boleas 14
‘Liberal Peace’ theory 264
Liberia
Comprehensive Peace Agreement (2003) 695
ECOWAS Mission in Liberia (ECOMIL) 695
ethnic politics 694
Interim Government of National Unity (IGNU) 455
multiparty elections 695
National Transitional Government of Liberia (NTGL) 695
Liberian Peace Council (LPC) 455
Liberians United for Reconciliation and Democracy (LURD) 695
Libya
border dispute with Chad 484–5
Linas-Marcoussis Agreement (2003) 709
Lon Nol 364
Lusaka Ceasefire Agreement (1999) 657
Macdonald, B F 225
Macedonia, Former Yugoslav Republic of
conflict in 501
declaration of independence 500
elections 504
ethnic composition of 501
inter-ethnic tensions 503
internal instability 503
political instability 500–1
Mackenzie, Robert 598
Madrid Accords (1975) 327
Mali 854–5
agreement between government and armed groups (2013) 860–1
background to conflict 856–7
conflict in 854
elections (2013) 861
government of National Unity 858
Islamist offensive 858
options for UN engagement in 859–60
regional responses to conflict 857–8
Roadmap for the Transition (2013) 859
Malu, Victor 637
Massoud, Ahmed Shah 273
Mauritania 327
Mazari, Abdul Ali 273
Mbemba, Jean-Pierre 593
Meir, Golda 150
Menkerios, Haile 747
Mesic, Stjepan 536
Mgwebi, Derrick 733
Military Professional Resources Inc 379
Minawi, Minni 782
Mission of the Representative of the Secretary-General in the Dominican Republic (DOMREP) 192, 214
assessment of 219–20
background to 214–16
contributing countries 215
course and conduct of operation 216–19
establishment of 217
mandate 215
political settlement 218–19
success of 220
Mladic, Ratko 383
Momoh, Joseph 598
Montgomery, Thomas 432
Movement for Democracy in Liberia (MODEL) 695
Movement for Unity and Jihad in West Africa 857
Muggah, Robert 724
Murphy, Ray 438
Museveni, Yoweri 657
Nairobi communiqué (2007) 663
Nambiar, Satish 375
Namibia 261, 285, 286
adoption of constitution 303
elections 302–3
history 294–5
peace negotiations 296
National Council of Timorese Resistance (CNRT) 652
National Resistance Army (NRA, Uganda) 464
National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA) 283–4, 285, 288, 289, 290, 338, 339, 341, 342, 343, 344, 346, 347, 563, 565, 566–7, 568, 569
Ndadaye, Melchior 731
Ndayizeye, Domitien 736
Nepalese Ghurka Security Group 598
Nixon, Richard M 363
non-intervention, and state sovereignty 79–81
North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) 5, 60, 61
bombing campaign in Yugoslavia 617
Darfur 781
Dayton Accords (1995) 512
Georgia 448
Ntaryamira, Cyprien 463
Ntganda, Bosco 663–4
Nuri, Said Abdullo 495
Nyerere, Julius 731
Nzomukunda, Alice 736
Obama, Barack 843
O’Connor, Mike 533
Office of the Secretary-General in Afghanistan and Pakistan (OSGAP) 272–3
Opande, Daniel Ishmael 637
Organisation for economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) 4
Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons 849
Organization of the Islamic Conference 410
Oslo Accords (1993) 129
Ouagadougou Peace Agreement (2007) 712
Owen, David 502
Pakistan 133
Geneva Accords (1988) 270
mujahidin 271–2
United Nations Security Force in West New Guinea (UNSF) 174–5
Palestine
Arab-Jewish tensions 121
British withdrawal from 122
Truce Commission 122
United Nations’ Partition Plan 121–2
Palestine Commission 114
Palmer, Bruce 215
Papadopoulos, Tassos 205
Parti pour la Libération du Peuple Hutu - Forces Nationales de Liberation (PALIPEHUTU-FNL)
path dependency 97
Pattison, James 87
peace operations
1946-2013 31–6
during Cold War 15–16
conflict management 15
definition of 13
duration of 25–7
growth in size of 29–30
political geography and types of operation 28–9
post-Cold War growth in 14–15
regional differences in preferred type of peacekeeper 21–5
relationship between size and type of 27–8
United Nations-authorized 13
United Nations-led 13
wars and peace operations (1946-2013) 36–41
Peacebuilding Commission 586
Pellegrini, Alain 771
People’s Redemption Council (Liberia) 454
Pérez de Cuéllar, Javier 189, 269, 270, 272, 277
Cambodia 402
Cyprus 205
East Timor 644–5
El Salvador 353
Namibia 296
Ping, Jean 65
Plaza, Galo 200
Porcell, Gerard 402–3
Portillo, Alfonso 559
Pretoria Agreement (2002) (Democratic Republic of the Congo) 660
Pretoria Agreement (2005) (Côte d’Ivoire) 711
Primakov, Yevgeny 447
problem-solving theory 94
Prodi, Romano 771
Pronk, Jan 745
protection of civilians (PoC) 266
Provide Comfort, Operation 81
Putin, Vladimir 449
Qazi, Ashraf 746
quick impact projects (QIPs) 702
Rabbani, Burhanuddin 273
Radjabu, Hussein 736
Ranariddh, Prince 400
Ratanga, Barthelemy 592
Rawlings, Jerry John 469
Reagan, Ronald 290
regime support missions 14
Republican Forces of Côte d’Ivoire (FRCI) 713
responsibility to protect (RtoP) 266
abuse of 88
as guiding principle for international decision-making 90
opposition to 88
Restore Democracy, Operation 540–1
Rieff, David 85
Roberts, Adam 78
robust peacekeeping 614
Rodriguez, José 559
Rolz-Bennett, José 201
Roos, Klaas 403
Ruak, Taur Matan 762
Russia
Lebanon 770
peacekeeping role in Georgia/Abkhaz conflict 446
South Ossetia 449
tensions with Georgia 448
see also Soviet Union
Rwanda 82, 261, 266
Arusha Peace Accords (1993) 465–6
attacks on refugee camps in Zaire 656–7
French humanitarian mission 475–6
humanitarian crisis 475
massacres of Tutsi (1959, 1963) 462–3
Nairobi communiqué (2007) 663
return and resettlement of refugees 477–8
Saakashvili, Mikheil 448–9
Sadry, Berhrooz 638
Sallal, Abdullah 180
San Isidro Declaration (1989) 309
Santiago Charter 540
Sanz, Fernando Ortiz 176
Sassou-Nguesso, Denis 567
Save Darfur Coalition 745
Scorpions (paramilitary group) 523
Serbia 372
Sesay, Issa 638
sexual abuse 56
Seybolt, Taylor 85
Shaheen, Imtiaz 412
Shevardnadze, Eduard 448
Sibanda, Philip 347
Sierra Leone
Abidjan Peace Agreement 598
ceasefire agreement (2000) 639
child soldiers 598
coup against Kabbah (1997) 599
invaded by Revolutionary United Front (RUF) 597–8
militia groups 598
private security companies 598
United Nations’ first engagement with 598
Sisco, Joseph 202
Sivan, Benon 272
Skogmo, Bjoern 255
Slaughter, Anne-Marie 86
Sleiman, Michel 773
Smarth, Rosny 574
Smith, Rupert 387
Smith, Stephen 593
Solarz, Stephen 364
Solomon Islands, Regional Assistance Mission to 24
Somalia 261
African Union/United Nations cooperation 65
ceasefire agreement 410
civil war 409–10
refugees 411
Soto, Horacio Vicioso 218
South Sudan
African Union High-level Implementation Panel 830
civil war legacy 830–1
conflict within 831
developmental challenge facing 831
internal inter-ethnic tensions 831
internal political struggles 837–8
post-referendum conflicts 749
security sector reform 831
South West Africa, see Namibia
South West African Broadcasting Commission (SWABC) 300
Southern African Development Community 14
Soviet Union
Dominican Republic 217
hostility towards United Nations 115
invasion of Afghanistan 269
Iran-Iraq War (1980-88) 276
proposals for reform of UN 118
Suez crisis (1956) 145
United Nations Operation in the Congo (ONUC) 167–8
United Nations Truce Supervision Organization for Palestine (UNTSO) 125
West New Guinea 177
Yemen 181
Yom Kippur War (1973) 230
see also Russia
Spinelli, Pier 183
Standby High Readiness Brigade (SHIRBRIG) 673
Stanimirović, Vojislav 527
Stoltenberg, Thorvald 511
Strasser, Valentine 598
Sudan 752
Abyei Boundary Commission 745
African Union High-level Implementation Panel 830
Darfur Peace Agreement (2006) 782
elections (2010) 747
improved relations with Chad 798
post-referendum conflicts 749
Southern Sudan referendum 747
Sudan Liberation Army 821
Sudan Revolutionary Forces 821
Sukarno 172
Sukarnoputri, Megawati 688
Sun City Agreement (2001) 660
Tafall, Osorio 201
Tagliavini, Heidi 448
Taha, Ali Osman 750
Taief Agreement (1989) 253
Tajikistan
civil war 492–3
Commission of National Reconciliation 495
elections 496
General Agreement 495
Talat, Mehmet Ali 205
Taliban 273
Tashkent Declaration 226
Tatam Ly, Oumar 861
Thakur, Ramesh 80
Thant, U 3, 48, 165
Dominican Republic 217
United Nations Emergency Force (UNEF I) 193
United Nations India-Pakistan Observation Mission (UNIPOM) 192
use of force 191
Thimayya, K S 200
Timorese Democratic Union (UDT) 644
Timorese Popular Democratic Association (APODETI) 644
Timor-Leste
army/police tensions 757
challenges facing 685
crisis in (2006) 757
crisis in (2008) 759
elections (2007) 758–9
elections (2012) 762
relations with Indonesia 688
United Nations missions to 756
Touré, Amadou Toumani 588–9
Tousignant, Guy 480
Trujillo, Rafael 216
Tubiana, Jérôme 786
Tueni, Ghassan 255
Tumioja, Sakari S 200
Union pour le Progrès National (UPRONA) (Burundi) 731
United Kingdom
United Nations Advance Mission in Cambodia (UNAMIC) 363
assessment of 368
background to 363–5
contributing countries 365
deployment of 365–6
deterioration of situation in Cambodia 366–7
establishment of 365
expanded mandate of 366
mandate 365
United Nations Advance Mission in Sudan (UNAMIS) 743
United Nations Angola Verification Mission (UNAVEM I) 283, 338
assessment of 289–91
background to 283–6
continuation of Angolan conflict 290–1
contributing countries 286
cooperation of parties 289
course and conduct of operation 286–9
deployment of 287
favourable historical context for 290
realistic mandate 289
relaxation of Cold War rivalries 290
respect for peacekeeping principles 290
timetable for troop withdrawal 289–90
United Nations Angola Verification Mission (UNAVEM II)
assessment of 344
contributing countries 340
course and conduct of operation 341–3
factors contributing to failure of 344–6
mandates 339–40
United Nations Angola Verification Mission (UNAVEM III)
assessment of 344
contributing countries 340
course and conduct of operation 343–4
United Nations Aouzou Strip Observer Group (UNASOG) 484
achievements of 488
assessment of 489
background to 484–5
contributing countries 486
cost of 487
course and conduct of operation 487–8
establishment of 486
limitations of 488
mandate 486
rapid deployment of 486–7
United Nations Assistance Mission for Rwanda (UNAMIR I) 82
assessment of 469–70
casualties 468
cost concerns 465
expanded mandate of 469
lack of resources 466
limited role of 465–6
mandate 464
pressure to close mission 467
reduction in strength of 468
rescue of expatriates 468
strength of 466
told not to seize weapons 467
United Nations Assistance Mission for Rwanda (UNAMIR II)
anti-UN demonstrations 478
assessment of 481–2
civilian police (CIVPOL) 480
creation of 473
delays in deployment 473
deteriorating security position in refugee camps 478–9
disagreement over role of 475
equipment offered by member states 474–5
French humanitarian mission 475–6
gradual build-up of force 476–7
Kibeho massacre 479
mandate 473–4
radio station established by 478
reduction in strength of 480
replacing French mission 477
return of refugees 478
withdrawal of 480–1
United Nations Assistance Mission for Sierra Leone (UNAMSIL) 597
United Nations Civilian Police Mission in Haiti (MIPONUH) 572, 576, 580
achievements of 584
background to 580–1
contributing countries 581
differences in international/Haitian approaches 585
duration of 582
extension of mandate 582
lessons learned from 585–6
limitations of 584–5
personnel problems and inadequacies 584
political crisis in Haiti 583
technical role of 584
weakened position of Haitian National Police 584–5
United Nations Civilian Police Support Group in Croatia (UNPSG) 519, 528
contributing countries 520
mandate 520
United Nations Confidence Restoration Operation in Croatia (UNCRO) 371
assessment of 377
contributing countries 374
Croatian army offensives 376–7
passivity of 379–80
United Nations Convention on the Safety of United Nations and Associated Personnel 46
United Nations Department of Field Support (DFS) 4
United Nations Department of Peacekeeping Operations (DPKO) 1, 265, 390
cooperation with regional organizations 62
Office of Military Affairs 3–4
planning of peacekeeping operations 4
robust conception of peacekeeping 614
use of force 54
United Nations Department of Safety and Security (UNDSS) 837
United Nations Disengagement Observer Force (UNDOF) 128, 194, 234, 238, 245
area of separation 240
assessment of 243–5
background to 238–9
challenges facing 242
conflict resolution 244–5
cooperation with other missions 241
course and conduct of operation 240–3
duration of 239
establishment of 239
limitations on 240–1
problems with monitoring 244
shooting incidents 241
as traditional peacekeeping mission 245
upholding Disengagement Agreement (1974) 240
violations of ceasefire agreement 242–3
violence abatement 243–4
United Nations Economic and Social Council 586
United Nations Emergency Force (UNEF I) 44, 120n, 140–1
area of deployment 147–8
assessment of 149–51
conflict containment 150
conflict settlement 150–1
contributing countries 146
course of the operation 146–9
duration of 146
minimum force 151
monitoring ceasefire 148
origins of 144
self-defense 51
as seminal operation 151
size of 147
unprecedented nature of 147
violence abatement 149–50
United Nations Emergency Force (UNEF II) 128, 193–4, 235–7
assessment of 233–5
conflict containment 234
conflict settlement 234–5
course and conduct of operation 231–3
disengagement of Egyptian/Israeli forces 232
end of operation 233
financing of 193
lessons learned from 236–7
violence abatement 233–4
Yom Kippur War (1973) 229–30
United Nations General Assembly 3
Cambodia 364
Declaration of Basic Principles of Justice for Victims of Crime and Abuse of Power 55
Declaration on Third Party Liability (1998) 55–6
Democratic Republic of the Congo 164
East Timor 644–5
Guatemala 557
mandating of peacekeeping operations 46
Resolution ES-6/2 269
Resolution 48/267 557
Resolution 998 147
Resolution 1237 156–7
Resolution 1514 172
Resolution 3292 326
Soviet invasion of Afghanistan 269
Suez crisis (1956) 146–7
Syria 843
West New Guinea 172
United Nations Good Offices Mission in Afghanistan and Pakistan (UNGOMAP)
assessment of 273
contributing countries 270
course and conduct of mission 271–3
establishment of 270
extension of mandate 272
Soviet withdrawal from Afghanistan 271
voluntary return of refugees 272
United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) 272, 319
Bosnia 388
East Timor 650
Namibia 302
Rwanda 477–8
United Nations Human Rights Commission, East Timor 645
United Nations India-Pakistan Observation Mission (UNIPOM)
assessment of 227
background to 222–4
challenges facing 225
constitutional basis of 224
contributing countries 223
course and conduct of operation 225–6
end of mission 226
mandate 223
troop withdrawals 225–6
United Nations Integrated Mission in Timor-Leste (UNMIT) 610, 692, 764–5
assessment of 763–4
background to 756–8
border stabilization 760
Committee on High Level Coordination 759
elections (2007) 758–9
establishment of 755
internally displaced persons 760
mandate 756
refugees 760
Serious Crimes Investigation Unit 761–2
withdrawal of 762
United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon (UNIFIL I) 129, 194, 767
absence of conditions for success 254
achievements of 254–5
attacks on 251–2
chain of command 250
establishment of 249
fragmented area of operations 251
humanitarian assistance 254
intended as short-term expedient 250
Israeli invasion of Lebanon (1982) 252
Israeli occupation of southern Lebanon 253
Israel’s Operation Change of Direction (2006) 768
lessons learned from 256
limitations of 255
mandate 249–50
number of troops 250
objectives 249
stabilization role 254–5
withdrawal of Israeli troops (1978) 251
withdrawal of Israeli troops (2000) 253–4
United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon (UNIFIL II) 610
achievements of 772–3
ambiguities of political mandate 770–1
assessment of 776–7
background to 767–8
command structures 774–5
cooperation with parties 773
degrading of deterrence capacity 772
deployment of 768
divisions between national contingents 772
European contributing countries 771
harassment of 772
impact on local economy 773–4
limitations of 775–6
mandate renewal 775–6
negotiation of UN Security Council Resolution 1701 769–70
parties’ testing of 772
stability in area of responsibility 772–3
unsupported by political process 776
use of force 770–1
United Nations Interim Mission in Kosovo (UNMIK)
assessment of 624–5
background to 617
civil administration 621–2
civilian police (CIVPOL) 620
collaboration with other multilateral organizations 618–19
coordination 619
course and conduct of operation 618–19
deployment of 617
establishment of 617
establishment of Kosovo Police Service (KPS) 620
ethnic violence (2004) 623
humanitarian assistance 621
judiciary 625
lessons learned from 626
mandate 618
as neo-trusteeship 618
return of refugees 621
self-government 622
unpreparedness 624
United Nations Interim Security Force for Abyei (UNIFSA)
accommodation problems 822
achievements of 823–5
assessment of 826–7
background to 818–19
challenges to mandate implementation 825–6
contribution to peace and security 824–5
course and conduct of operation 821–3
humanitarian assistance 825
joint border verification and monitoring mission (JBVMM) 821
mandate implementation 823–4
promotion of Dinka/Misseriya coexistence 824
rapid deployment of 821–2
return of refugees 824–5
Sudanese obstruction 822–3
withdrawal of Sudanese/South Sudanese security forces 822
United Nations Iran-Iraq Military Observer Group (UNIIMOG) 275
achievements of 280
assessment of 281
ceasefire monitoring 277–8
ceasefire violations 278
contributing countries 277
course and conduct of operation 277–9
disengagement from Iraq 279
impact of Iraqi invasion of Kuwait 279
inadequate resources 280
limitations of 280–1
limited host-state cooperation 280
mandate 276–7
United Nations Iraq-Kuwait Observation Mission (UNIKOM)
achievements of 319
assessment of 320–1
assistance to other missions in Iraq 314
attacks on 318
contributing countries 315
course and conduct of operation 316–19
criminal activities in demilitarized zone 320
deterioration of Iraq’s confidence in 318
establishment of 314
expulsion of personnel 319
factors contributing to failure of 321
financing of 319–20
limitations of 319–20
mandate 315
monitoring of demilitarized zone (DMZ) 316–17
refugees 319
strength of 315
tensions with Iraq (1993-94) 317–18
unexploded ordnance 320
violations of demilitarized zone by British/US aircraft 318–19
United Nations Joint Office on the Prevention of Genocide and RtoP 89
United Nations Military Observer Group in India and Pakistan (UNMOGIP) 114, 140–1, 222
ceasefire violations 222
contributing countries 134
course and conduct of operation 135–9
duration of 134
establishment of 134
failure to report atrocities 140
India-Pakistan War (1965) 136–7
India-Pakistan War (1971) 137
insufficient personnel 139
intensification of conflict 223–4
minimalist role of 136
monitoring of ceasefire line 136
situation on the ground 140
successes and failures of 139–40
United Nations Mission for the Referendum in Western Sahara (MINURSO)
assessment of 335–6
civilian police components 332
confidence-building 334
deployment of 330
difficulties faced by 329–30
establishment of 328
exclusion of human rights monitoring 333
factors contributing to lack of progress 334–5
Houston Agreements (1997) 331
identification of potential voters 330–1
mandate 327
medical unit 332
military component 331–2
mine clearance 333
political nature of 334
reduction in strength of 330
role of 334–5
supervision of ceasefire 332–3
United Nations Settlement Plan for Western Sahara 329
violations of ceasefire agreement 333
United Nations Mission in Bosnia and Herzegovina (UNMIBH) 388
achievements of 514–15
assessment of 517
background to 511–12
contributing countries 512
course and conduct of mission 513–14
establishment of 511
limitations of 515–17
mandate 512
negative perceptions of 516
obstruction from the police 515–16
termination of 514
weak support from member states 516
United Nations Mission in Ethiopia and Eritrea (UNMEE) 610
assessment of 681
attempts to normalize relations between parties 677
background to 671–2
border demarcation 677–8
breach of ceasefire by Eritrea 679
contributing countries 673
deployment of 673–4
Eritrean criticism of 678–9
Eritrean militia and police in Temporary Security Zone 676
establishment of 672
headquarters in both capitals 674
humanitarian assistance 675
lessons learned from 681
mandate 673
Military Coordination Commission (MCC) 675–6
Mine Action Coordination Centre (MACC) 675
operational activities 674–6
public information and outreach centers 675
relations with Eritrean government 676
relations with Ethiopian government 676–7
Standby High Readiness Brigade (SHIRBRIG) 673
termination of 680
United Nations Mission in Haiti (UNMIH) 545, 547
achievements of 544
assessment of 543–4
background to 540–1
construction works 543
contributing countries 541
coordination with other UN agencies 543
course of mission 542
lack of disarmament campaign 544
lack of Security Council support 544
limitations of 544
mandate 541–2
objectives 541
United Nations Mission in Liberia (UNMIL) 610
anti-sexual abuse and exploitation (SEA) campaign 702–3
apprehension of Charles Taylor 700
assessment of 703
background to 694–5
benchmarks for drawdown 698
contributing countries 696
cynicism towards 703
deterrence effect on armed groups 697
disarmament, demobilization, repatriation and reintegration (DDRR) 696–7
Gender Office 702
gradualist approach to withdrawal 699
as integrated mission 701–2
lessons learned from 703
Liberian National Police (LNP) 698
local scepticism over departure of 698–9
mandate 695–6
occupied rubber plantations 697–8
police reform 698
quick impact projects (QIPs) 702
reintegration, rehabilitation and recovery (RRR) section 702
security benchmarks 698
United Nations Mission in Sierra Leone (UNAMSIL) 599, 629
background to 630–1
British deployment in Sierra Leone 635
contributing countries 633
disarmament 639
distinctive features of 629
divisions within leadership of 636–7
factors affecting 630
increase in strength of 638
mandate 632–3
as model peacekeeping mission 639
negative perceptions of 635
offensive military operations 638
peace process 639
reorganization of 638
resistance to disarmament 634
restoration of reputation of 637–9
rules of engagement 638
slow deployment of 634
success of 639
United Nations Mission in Sudan (UNMIS) 610, 830
Abyei 819
achievements of 748
ambiguities in Comprehensive Peace Agreement 750
assessment of 751
background to 742–3
building trust between parties 746
ceasefire monitoring 748
contributing countries 744
contribution to peace and security 749
criticisms of 748–9
election organization and supervision 747
involvement in Darfur 745
lack of international support 750–1
lack of political will among parties 750
lessons learned from 751–2
mandate 743–4
mandate implementation 748
obstacles to mandate implementation 750–1
parties’ relationship with 750
protection of civilians 748–9
security threats 746
slow deployment of 744
termination of 747
United Nations Mission in the Central African Republic and Chad (MINURCAT) 610
assessment of 798–800
background to 791–2
cooperation between MINURCAT and EUFOR 794
course of the operation 793–4
Détachment Intégré de Securité (DIS) 794–6
focus on vulnerable populations 796–7
intercommunity dialogue 796
inter-mission cooperation 797–8
lack of political mandate 799
mandates 793
promotion of Chad/Sudan dialogue 798
slow deployment of 794
termination of 798
United Nations Mission in the Central African Republic (MINURCA)
assessment of 594–5
background to 588–9
contributing countries 590
deployment of 588
international context of creation of 590–1
limited impact of 593
limited resources 592
limited scope of 591–2
peacebuilding 591
withdrawal of 593
United Nations Mission in the Republic of South Sudan (UNMISS)
assessment of 838–9
background to 830–1
Civil Affairs Division 835
composition of 832
constraints on troop deployment 836
contributing countries 832
county support bases (CSBs) 833–4
establishment of 832
human rights monitoring 838
inter-mission cooperation 835
lack of aircraft and boats 836
local reconciliation processes 835
logistical constraints 836
personnel shortages 835–6
security restrictions on 837
state development 835
unrealistic expectations of 839
United Nations Mission of Observers in Prevlaka (UNMOP) 532
area of operations 534
assessment of 537–8
background to 532–3
border monitoring 532
ceasefire violations 534–5
contributing countries 534
course and conduct of mission 534–7
Croatian/Montenegrin diplomacy 535
Croatian/Yugoslav diplomacy 536–7
impact of Kosovo crisis 536
mandate 534
United Nations Mission of Observers in Tajikistan (UNMOT) 492
assessment of 497
background to 492–3
casualties 496
ceasefire violations 494
contributing countries 493
disarmament, demobilization and reintegration (DDR) 496
establishment of 493
implementation of 1994 mandate 494–5
implementation of 1997 mandate 495–6
increase in strength of 496
mandate 493
return of refugees 496
suspension of UN activities 495
United Nations Mission of Support in East Timor (UNMISET) 610, 651, 755
achievements of 691
border security 688–9
Civilian Support Group (CSG) 685–6
contributing countries 684
creation of 683
development of law enforcement capacity 687
development of national administrative structures 685–6
extension of mandate 690
internal/external security 688
language problems 686
lessons learned from 692
limitations of 691–2
mandate adjustment 689–90
nation-building responsibilities 684–5
public order challenges 687
strength of 684
unrealistic timetable 685
withdrawal of 683
United Nations Monitoring, Verification and Inspection Commission (UNMOVIC) 318
United Nations Multidimensional Integrated Stabilization Mission in CAR (MINUSCA) 595
United Nations Multidimensional Integrated Stabilization Mission in Mali (MINUSMA) 70, 854, 863
background to Mali conflict 856–7
contributing countries 856
deployment of 861
election organization and supervision 861
establishment of 860
French military support 860
governance and development initiatives 862
north-south political process 862
options for UN engagement in Mali 859–60
political basis for operations 861
re-hatting of AFISMA personnel 861
volatile security situation 862
United Nations Observation Group in Lebanon (UNOGIL) 116
assessment of 157–8
challenges facing 155
closure of 157
contributing countries 154
course and conduct of operation 154–7
establishment of 153
impact of American deployment 156
increase in personnel 155–6
methods of operation 154–5
political context 156–7
United Nations Observer Group in Central America (ONUCA) 306
assessment of 311–12
demobilization and disarmament of Nicaraguan Resistance 309–11
innovations by 311
reintegration of former combatants 311
strengthening of peace process 311
verification of cessation of aid to irregular forces 308–9
United Nations Observer Mission in Angola (MONUA)
assessment of 568–9
attacks on 565
background to 563
contributing countries 564
course and conduct of mission 564–8
limited impact of 569
mandate 564
responsibilities of 565–6
withdrawal of 567–8
withdrawal of UN peacekeeping forces 564–5
United Nations Observer Mission in El Salvador (ONUSAL)
assessment of 358–9
civilian police (CIVPOL) 354–5
contributing countries 352
election monitoring 357–8
establishment of 351
human rights monitoring 353–4
land transfer programme 356–7
lessons learned from 360
mandate 352
military demobilization 355–6
organizational structure 359
phases of operation 353
reintegration of former combatants 356
United Nations Observer Mission in Georgia (UNOMIG) 443, 445, 449–50
assessment of 450–1
background to 443–4
casualties 448
civilian police 448
dependence on Russian peacekeeping role 446
deteriorating security position 448
difficulties in dealing with conflict 449
establishment of 445
lack of progress on return of displaced persons 447
mandate 444
mission strength 445
tensions between Georgia and Russia 448
withdrawal of 450
United Nations Observer Mission in Liberia (UNOMIL)
assessment of 459–60
contributing countries 456
demobilization and disarmament 458
election organization and supervision 459
mandate 455–6
perceived as being partial 457
reduction in strength of 458
renewal of mission 456
security of personnel 457–8
support for regional peacekeeping operation 456
United Nations Observer Mission in Sierra Leone (UNOMSIL) 597, 629
assessment of 603
background to 597–9
contributing countries 600
deterioration in security situation 600
establishment of 599
evacuation of 600
expansion of 602
extension of mandate 601
mandate 599
United Nations Office in Angola (UNOA) 568
United Nations Office in Burundi (BNUB) 733
United Nations Office of Legal Affairs 55–6
United Nations Office to the African Union (UNOAU) 65
United Nations Operation in Burundi (ONUB) 610
achievements of 737
assessment of 738–9
background to 731–2
Burundi Partners’ Forum 736
contributing countries 733
course and conduct of operation 733–7
disarmament, demobilization and reintegration (DDR) 735
election organization and supervision 735
establishment of 732
extension of transitional period 734
integration of ex-combatants 734–5
Joint Ceasefire Commission 734
lessons learned from 738–9
limitations of 737–8
mandate 733
security sector reform 735
withdrawal of 736–7
United Nations Operation in Côte d’Ivoire (UNOCI) 82–3, 610, 707
achievements of 715
assessment of 716–17
background to 707–8
constraints on mandate implementation 714
contributing countries 709
deployment of 710
difficulty operating with weak host consent 715–16
failure of disarmament, demobilization and rehabilitation programme 715
France’s impact on 716
mandate 708–9
mandate renewal 712–13
November 2004 crisis 710–11
Ouagadougou Peace Agreement (2007) 712
post-election crisis 713–14
presidential elections (2010) 713
restoration of state administration 712
weak leadership 716
work undertaken by 712
United Nations Operation in Mozambique (ONUMOZ)
ambitious nature of 418–19
background to 416–17
Boutros-Ghali’s intervention 422
contributing countries 418
delays in deployment 420–1
establishment of 416
factors contributing to success of 423–6
financing of 420
humanitarian assistance 420
lessons learned from UNAVEM II in Angola 423–4
obstruction by parties 421–2
Reintegration Support Scheme 423
return of refugees 422
success of 417–18
troop levels 420
war weariness and desire for peace 424
United Nations Operation in Somalia (UNOSOM I) 405
anti-UN sentiment 411
assessment of 414
background to 409–11
ceasefire monitoring 411
contributing countries 409
deployment of 411
humanitarian assistance 411
impotence of troops 412
increase in size of security force 411–12
operational limitations 414
partial deployment 412
strategic limitations 413–14
Unified Task Force (Somalia) (UNITAF) 412–13
United Nations Operation in Somalia (UNOSOM II) 81, 408, 413
assessment of 439–40
command structure problems 438
contributing countries 430
coordination problems 438–9
course and conduct of operation 432–6
disarmament 434
factors contributing to failure of 436–9
failure of 430
hunt for General Aidid 435
lack of capability to create secure environment 433
lack of intelligence capabilities 439
limited achievements of 436
mandate 430–1
mission-creep 438
multidimensional operation 429
objectives 429
unrealistic mandate 437–8
war-fighting 434–5
withdrawal of 436
United Nations Operation in the Congo (ONUC) 45, 117–18, 167–8
achievements of 168
arrest and death of Lumumba 164
assessment of 167
collapse of Congolese government 163
contributing countries 162
course and conduct of operation 162–6
duration of 162
end of 166
establishment of 160
impartiality 167
Katangese hostility towards 164–5
Kitona Declaration (1961) 166
mandate 161–2
military operations 166
Operation Morthor 165
Operation Rumpunch 165
Soviet opposition to 167–8
withdrawal of national contingents from 164
United Nations Organization Mission in the Democratic Republic of Congo (MONUC) 656
achievements of 665–6
assessment of 665–8
background to 656–7
contributing countries 659
criticisms of 664
disarmament, demobilization and reintegration (DDR) 665
establishment of 657
human rights 666
implementation of Lusaka Ceasefire Agreement (1999-2002) 659–60
implementation of transitional governance arrangements (2003-6) 660–2
inability to end violence against civilians 666–7
institutional constraints 667
lack of Security Council leadership 667
lack of security sector reform 668
operations against militias 661
post-electoral stabilization (2007-10) 662–5
reconfiguring of mandate 664
reduction in troop levels 665
strategic review of 664
United Nations Organization Stabilization Mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (MONUSCO) 50, 656, 665, 803
background to 804
civilian protection 805–8
contributing countries 804
future of 815
Goma debacle 807–8
human rights protection and promotion 810–11
International Security and Stabilisation Support Strategy (ISSSS) 805
leadership structure 804
mandate 803–4
operations against militias 806
police reform 810–11
public works 812
questioning of stabilization initiative 813
restoration of state authority 811–12
security sector reform 809–11
stabilization and consolidation of peace 804–5
strengthening of rule of law 810–11
support for elections 808–9
use of force 51
weakness of Congolese state 813
United Nations Peacekeeping Force in Cyprus (UNFICYP) 119, 191, 197
assessment of 206–9
challenges facing 197
divisions within Greek Cypriot community 201–2
failure of 206
failure of Greek/Turkish negotiations (1974) 203–4
Greek-inspired coup d’etat (1974) 202
Greek/Turkish Cypriot fighting 200–1
inter-communal talks (1968-72) 201
lack of mission definition 207
pacifying influence of 207
police functions 208
political background to 199
United Nations peacekeeping operations 1
achievements of 5–6
bureaucratic inefficiency 266
capability development 612
casualties 607
challenges facing 7–8
Charter of the United Nations 44
Cold War peacekeeping (1964-87) 189–96
conflict containment 189
conflict management 262–3
cost of 4
cost-effectiveness of 6
diversity of peacekeepers 614
divisions amongst member states 613
duration of 26
early experiences (1948-63) 113–19
expectations of 7
factors affecting success of 265–6
factors contributing to failure of 266
financing of UN peacekeeping operations 45
first deployments 114–15
global field support strategy 612
improvised nature of 266
inconsistent and weak support for 7
institutional competence 45–7
institutional inadequacies 7
internal armed conflicts 262
involvement in internal affairs 264
lack of basis in UN Charter 43
motives for states’ participation 5
‘no-peace-to-keep’ situations 266
number of 2
number of peacekeepers 262
partnerships with other organizations 5,