(p. 717)
Index
Note: Page numbers followed by f and t indicate figures and tables, respectively.
A
AAALAC, guidelines for care and welfare of cephalopods in research, 18
Acetylcholine (ACh)
immunoreactivity, in detection of neurons, 258
and iridophore activity in cephalopods, 708,
711
Acetylcholine receptor(s), 292
Acetylcholinesterase (AChE)
Achaete-Scute family (ASH), in neurogenesis, 73–75
Achatina spp., neuron size in, 253
Acheta (cricket), terminal ganglion, neuron/cell number in, 251t,
252
Acheta domestica (cricket), axon regeneration in, 578t
Acoela (acoels), 79
frontal organ (frontal glandular complex) of, 79–80,
86,
87f
Acoelomorpha (acoelomorphs), 79
Acorn worms. See Priapulida (priapulids, acorn worms)
Acoustic communication, 8–9
Acropora (coral)
ionotropic glutamate receptors, 139
6-4 photolyase and cryptochrome in, 602
transcriptome assembly, 144t,
145
Acropora millespora (coral), circadian rhythms in, 595
Action potential(s), 248
generation in squid giant axon, 3–4
in hydromedusan swim system, 201,
202f
of scyphozoan neurons, 191
Acyrthosiphon (pea aphid), circadian oscillator design in, 602
Adenosine, in chemical signaling, 293–294
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
Aedes spp. (mosquito), feeding behavior, 9
Aggregation, 685–691
behaviors associated with, 686
as dynamic behavioral transition, 691,
691f
internal and external regulation of, 686,
686f
neurotransmitters regulating, 688–691
pathway (linear) model for, 691,
691f
Aggression, 691–694
in Drosophila, sleep and, 14
as dynamic behavioral transition, 691,
691f
in honeybees, genes associated with, conservation across invertebrate–vertebrate boundary, 5
internal and external regulation of, 686f
pathway (linear) model for, 691,
691f
regulation of
tachykinin and its receptor in, 694
Aiptasia spp., behavioral activity of, 187
β-Alanine, in cnidarian neurotransmission, 206
Allostatin-A, 237
in Drosophila feeding control circuit, 11
Alloteuthis spp., oocyte maturation in, 627
Allotriocarida, mushroom bodies of, 50f
Alpheoidea (pistol shrimps)
mushroom body characters in, 50,
52f
Ambulacraria, 90
neural architecture of, 91–92
neural differentiation in, 94
Amidated peptides, precursor genes, in flatworms, 232t,
233t,
235t
Amine neurotransmitters, 292–293.
See also Biogenic amines;
specific amine
Amino acetonitrile derivatives (AADs), mechanism of action of, 220
Amino acid(s), as neurotransmitters, 290
Amino acid/auxin permease (AAAP) family of transporters, 133
Amino terminal peptide (Nt), in female gastropods, 634
Amphimedon spp.
circadian oscillator design in, 600f,
603
transcriptome assembly, 144t,
145
(p. 718)
Amphioxus
adult spinal cord, neuron/cell number in, 252t,
253
floor plate, glia, and supportive cells, 257
Amynthus hawayanus, locomotion in, 462
Anax junius (dragonfly), visual motion integration in descending pathways, 334,
335f
Ancistrocheirus lesueurii (squid), intersexuality (pseudohermaphroditism) in, 616
Ancylus flaviatilis
egg-laying behavior in, 635
Annelida (annelids), 80,
127f,
128t.
See also Platynereis spp.
behavioral and neural plasticity in, 517–519
body plan, vertebrate body plan as inverted version of, 31
brain organization in, 35,
58,
83
central nervous system, neuron/cell number in, 252
hydrostatic skeleton of, 452
larvae, neural architecture and development in, 86–88,
87f
muscular hydrostat of, 452
serotonergic neurons in, 86
stomatogastric nervous system in, 83
subepithelial nervous system in, 73,
83
synaptic ultrastructure in, 261
Anomura (anomurans), mushroom body characters in, 50,
52f
Anopheles gambiae (mosquito), circadian rhythms in, 595
Ant(s). See also specific ant
cooperative behavior in, octopamine and, 693
ferum oxide particles in, 369
magnetic orientation/magnetoreception in, behavioral tests of, 377
magnetoreception in, 372t
Antennae, 37–38
insect, odorant receptors in, 351
Anthelmintic drug(s), targets for, 219,
229,
236
Antheraea pernyi (moth), central (circadian) pacemaker in, 606
Anthopleura (sea anemone), vesicle-mediated neurotransmission in, 137
Anthopleura elegantissima (sea anemone), habituation in, 514–515
Anthozoa
apparent absence of gap junctions in, 205
cnidocyte discharge, physiology of, 207
delayed initiation system (DIS), 188
multiple conducting systems of, 187–188
neural architecture of, 77,
188
neuromuscular facilitation, 188
APGWamide
in posterior olfactory lobule of octopus, 639
Apical organ
in ambulacrarian larvae, 93,
93f
of nemertean pilidium, 88
in polyclad larvae, 86,
87f
of trochophore larvae, 86,
87f
Apis mellifera (honeybee). See also Honeybees
brain of, neuron/cell number in, 251t,
252
classical conditioning in, 544t
activity-dependent modulation and, 549–550
foraging gene, and behavior, 687
genomics, and synaptic transmission, 128t
magnetic orientation/magnetoreception in, 372t,
374
molecular oscillator design in, 601f
odor discrimination, classical conditioning and, 542–543
serotonin receptors in, 228
transcriptome assembly, 144t
Aplysia (Aplysia californica, sea hare), 401,
402f
axon regeneration in, 576,
578t
retrograde signaling in, 584
bag cells, and egg-laying behavior, 634,
636
buccal central pattern generator, inputs to, 409–410
buccal motor programs, induction of, 410–411,
411f
central nervous system of, 631f
cerebral buccal interneurons (CBIs), 409–410,
548
modulatory neuropeptides, 410
cerebral peptide 2 (CP–2), 410
classical and operant learning in, and plasticity in synaptic and membrane properties, 546–548,
547t
classical conditioning in, 544t
activity-dependent modulation and, 549
conditioned respondent behavior, neuronal plasticity and, 539–540
decision-making CPG neurons, and plasticity in classical and operant conditioning, 547t,
548
feeding behavior, 9,
402–403,
403f
afferent-induced hyperretraction, 406–407
operant and classical conditioning of, 398
plasticity in, classical and operant conditioning and, 547–548,
547t
radula protraction and decision making, 406,
541–542
radula retraction and behavior-dependent phase switching, 406
research on, advances in (future directions for), 414
feeding central pattern generation, 404,
404f
protraction-retraction circuitry, 405–407
feeding circuit activating peptide (FCAP), 410
feeding circuitry in, 404,
404f
extrinsic neuromodulation, 409
intrinsic neuromodulation, 409
female reproductive behavior and its neuroendocrine control, 634–636
food-seeking behavior, operant conditioning of, 540–542
gill-withdrawal reflex (GWR). See also Aplysia (Aplysia californica), defensive-withdrawal reflex
GnRH actions (physiologic effects) in, 624–625
habituation in, 523–524
presynaptic and postsynaptic mechanisms in, 523–524
identified motor neurons in, 405t
isolated nervous system, hyperretraction in motor programs induced in, 407
large abdominal ganglion, neuron/cell number in, 251t,
252
long-term synaptic depression, neuropeptide-related, 568
nervous system of, neuron size and number in, 559
operant conditioning in
activity-dependent modulation and, 550–551
dopaminergic reinforcing pathway and, 541
as learning from operant emission and its associated outcome, 540–541
protein kinase C (PKC) isoforms (PKMs), 143
radula motor patterns, central pattern generator (CPG) for, 542
reflexes
Hebbian synaptic plasticity and, 540,
551
reproductive morphology of, 631f
respondent behavior in, plasticity of, 538–539
sensitization in, 525–527
molecular mechanisms of, 527
sensory-motor pathways, neuronal organization of, 539
synaptic ultrastructure in, 261
tentacle-retraction reflex, habituation in, 523
transcriptome assembly, 143,
144t
Aplysia dactylomela, egg laying hormone in, 634
Aplysia depilans, feeding, 402
Aplysia fasciata, feeding, 402
Aplysia kurodai
cerebral CBM1 neurons, 409
Aplysia oculifera, feeding, 402
Apoptosis
in Caenorhabditis elegans, 162
and Wallerian degeneration, differentiation of, 580–581
Arabidopsis thaliana, cryptochrome in, 602
Arachnida (arachnids), 32.
See also Chelicerata (chelicerates)
cerebral organization in, 55
eyes of, evolution of, 55
neural development of, 55,
56f
neural ground patterns, 41
segmental ganglia of, 42–43
visual system of, parallel chromatic and achromatic pathways in, 55–57,
56f
Arborization, of insect neurons, 106f,
107
Archaeognatha, 42,
46,
48
olfactory receptor neurons of, 49
Architeuthis dux (giant squid), 615
Arcuate body(ies), 44,
44f,
45
L-Aromatic amino acid decarboxylase (L-AADC), 228
Artemia salina, synaptic polyads, 263
Arthropoda (arthropods), 127f,
128t.
See also Crustacea (crustaceans);
Insecta (insects);
Panarthropoda
body structure of, 97
vertebrate body plan as inverted version of, 31
brain of, 58,
97,
98f
divergent evolution of, 31–70
evolutionary conservation of, 35
ground patterns of, 34–35
vertebrate brain and, correspondences of, 32
central nervous system, organization of, 97,
98f
central (circadian) pacemakers in, 604
chemosensory transduction in, 345–365
advances in (future directions for), 359
speed versus sensitivity in, 357–359
distance information extraction from visual motion, 319,
330–333,
332f
elementary small target motion detector (ESTMD) neurons in, 328–330,
329f
epithelial sodium channels (ENaC), 347,
348f
(p. 720)
gustatory receptors, signal transduction, 350–351
homologous neuromeres of, 98f
ionotropic glutamate receptors, 347,
348f
land-dwelling, olfaction and taste in, 345–346
molecular oscillator design in, 601,
601f
motion vision in, 319–344
advances in (future directions for), 337–339
neural architecture of, 97,
98f,
519
neuroanatomical characteristics of, 97
neuromuscular junctions, 265
neuron/cell number in, 251t,
252
neurons, immunocytochemical detection of, 258
odorant-binding proteins (OBPs), 351
odor detection in, speed of, 357–359
olfactory receptor–dependent metabotropic pheromone transduction in, 354
pheromone-binding proteins (PBPs), 351
receptor guanylyl cyclases, 347,
348f
sensory neuron membrane proteins (SNMPs), 352
small target motion detector (STMD) neurons in, 328–330,
329f
subepithelial nervous system in, 73
synaptic ultrastructure in, 260
ventral nerve cord of, 97,
98f
visual motion, extraction of distance information from, 319,
330–333,
332f
water-living, olfaction and taste in, 345–346
Arthurdendyus triangulatus, neuropeptide Fs (NPFs) in, 236
Ascaris spp.
neural architecture of, 98f
neuron number versus neuron types in, 254
Ascarosides, in Caenorhabditis elegans, 688
Ascidians (sea squirts), 90–91
adult, neuron/cell number in, 252t,
253
larva
neuron/cell number in, 252t,
253
neuron numbers versus neuron types, 254
neural architecture of, 91f
sensory neuron formation in, 95–97
Asplanchna spp.
brain of, neuron/cell number in, 251t,
252
neural architecture of, 248
neuronal asymmetry in, 271
neuron numbers versus neuron types, 254
Astacidae, hemiellipsoid bodies in, 51,
52f
Astacus spp., hemiellipsoid bodies in, 52f
Atonal family (ATO), in neurogenesis, 73–75
Atta colombica, magnetoreception in, 370,
372t,
374
Aurelia (moon jelly)
cnidocyte complex of, 208f
exumbrellar nerve nets, 199
medusae, swim musculature of, 195
Aurelia aurita (jellyfish), habituation in, 515
Autonomic nervous system, 72
Axon(s), 75,
248
adaptation to chronic stress, 583
damage
neuronal response to, 575
degeneration, 576f
after chronic injury, 576f,
580
chronic stressors and, 576f,
583
Sarm- and Nmnat-independent pathway for, 583
development of, vs. axonal regeneration, 585–586
injury, lag phase after, 580
injury response, mechanisms of, 575–592
myelinated, in invertebrates, 249–250
regeneration
and axonal development, comparison of, 585–586
retrograde signaling in, 584
Azimuth, in magnetic compass sense, 374
B
Bag cell peptides, in female gastropods, 634
Basal ganglia, vertebrate, homology to arthropod central complex, 5
Basic Helix-Loop-Helix (bHLH) transcription factors, in neurogenesis, 73–75,
77
Basiepithelial (basiepidermal) nervous system, 72–73,
72f
distribution in invertebrates, 73
Basommatophora
central nervous system of, 631f
reproductive morphology of, 631f
tentacles, eye spots on, 644
Behavior. See also specific behavior; specific organism
in vivo recording during, 6–7
quantitative and computational analysis of, 6
Behavioral states, Caenorhabditis elegans, 163–165
Bilateria (bilaterians), 79
basiepithelial nervous system in, 73
ground pattern organization in, 59
serotonergic neurons in, 86
subepithelial nervous system in, 73
Biogenic amines. See also specific amine
and aggregation by locusts, 689
and Caenorhabditis elegans pharyngeal pumping, 163
and Drosophila feeding behavior, 179
and Drosophila phototactic behavior, 174–175
Biompholaria glabrata (snail)
caudo-dorsal cell cluster (CDC) in, 634
male reproductive behavior and its neuroendocrine control, 630,
632–633
mating history and mate choice in, 640
sexual isolation, and motivation to mate, 640
Bipartite expression systems
Birgus latro (coconut crab), 48
Bivalves, 615.
See also specific bivalve
neural architecture in, 83
Blabarus discoidalis (cockroach)
head direction cell-like activity in, 12
Blatella germanica, magnetic orientation/magnetoreception in, 372t
Blattodea, central (circadian) pacemakers in, 605–606
Bombyx mori (silkworm)
sex phermone detection in, 357
Botryllus schlosseri, brain of, 91f
Brachiopoda (lamp shells), 80
larvae, neural development in, 88
neural architecture of, 81
serotonergic neurons in, 86
Brachiostoma spp.
genomics, and synaptic transmission, 129t,
131
transcriptome assembly, 144t,
145
Brachycera spp., visual system of, 321,
321f
Brachyura, hemiellipsoid bodies in, 52f
Brain(s), 71–72,
72f.
See also specific organism
arthropod. See Arthropoda (arthropods), brain of
circumpharyngeal (circumesophageal), 58,
59,
60f
complex, evolution of, 256
complexity, range of, in invertebrates, 248
insect, elementary cognitive functions in, model for, 671,
671f
invertebrate, Darwin on, 694
magnetic information processing in, 381
regions, nomenclature for, 268
vertebrate
and arthropod, correspondences of, 32
Brain states, corresponding to emotions, 5
Branchial ganglion, in molluscs, 82f,
83
Branchiostoma spp., circadian oscillator design in, 602
Branchiostoma floridae
neural development in, 94
Branchiostoma lanceolatum, central (circadian) pacemakers in, 604
Bryozoa (bryozoans, moss animals)
larvae, neural architecture and development in, 86–88,
87f
neural architecture of, 71,
81,
82f
serotonergic neurons in, 86
Buccal ganglia, of molluscs, 83
Bulinus globosus, copulation behavior in, 641
Bulinus octoploides, egg-laying behavior in, 635
Bulinus truncatus (snail)
caudo-dorsal cell cluster (CDC) in, 634
Bumblebee(s)
cognitive flexibility in, 18
observational learning in, 18
Bursting neuron(s), dynamic models of, 15
Butterflies. See also specific butterfly
circadian oscillator design in, 602
Byasa alcinous (Chinese windmill), learning in, 13
C
(p. 722)
Cabbage white (Pieris rapae), learning in, 13
Caenorhabditis elegans
behavior
computational analysis of, 6
multicellular signaling in, 460
brain of, neuron/cell number in, 251t,
252
central nervous system, 101f,
102
chemosensory molecules, 158
circadian oscillator design in, 602
command interneurons, 160,
160f
connectome of, 152–153,
153f,
269
research, advances in (future directions for), 165
dauer, 153
daf-7 pathway and GABA in, 688
defecation motor program (DMP), 163
forward/backward locomotion, 153,
153f
genes, conservation in mammals, 165
as genetic model system, 6,
151,
165
hermaphrodites, reproduction, 161
learning, memory, and decision making, neurons and circuits for, 158–159
learning-induced taste preferences in, 15
locomotion molecules, 161
locomotor activity, arousal vs. quiescence and, 164–165
magnetic orientation/magnetoreception in, 369,
372t
electrophysiology and neuroanatomy of, 380–381
mechanosensation, neurons and circuits for, 154–157
neuronal asymmetry in, 271
neurons
immunocytochemical detection of, 258
numbers versus types, 254
nose touch
mechanotransducers for, 156,
156t
ocr-2 gene, and solitary vs. social strains, 687
odor receptors, response thresholds, 357
osm-9 gene, and solitary vs. social strains, 687
proprioception, mechanotransducers for, 156–157,
156t
RPM-1, and response to axonal damage, 583
serotonin receptors in, 228
sex-specific neurons in, 151
synapses, numbers of, 264
synaptic organization, 267
synaptic vesicles, fixation methods, 263
thermosensation, neurons and circuits for, 158
Wallerian degeneration in, Sarm- and Nmnat-independent pathway for, 583
Cajal's law of dynamic polarization, 249,
259
Calcium, and habituation in leeches, 519
Calfluxin, in female gastropods, 634
Calliactis spp.
neurotransmission in, 207
vesicle-mediated neurotransmission in, 137
Calliactis parasitica
delayed initiation system (DIS), 188
symbiotic relationship with hermit crab, 187
Callinectes sapidus (blue crab)
neuron number versus neuron types in, 255
Calliphora spp., feature detection (FD) cells, 328,
329f
CALP (C-terminally located anterior lobe peptide), of gastropods, 630
Calyx, of insect mushroom body, 46,
48,
51
Cambarus (crayfish), central (circadian) pacemakers in, 605
Cancer borealis (shore crab)
neuron number versus neuron types in, 255
stomatogastric ganglion neuronal topology in, 12
(p. 723)
Capitella spp.
circadian oscillator design in, 602
genomics, and synaptic transmission, 128t
neural development in, 88
transcriptome assembly, 144t,
145
Capsaspora spp.
transcriptome assembly, 144t,
145
Carausius spp., second abdominal ganglion, neuron/cell number in, 251t,
252
Carboxyl terminal peptide (CTP), in female gastropods, 634
Carcinus (crab), central (circadian) pacemakers in, 605
Carcinus maenas (European green crab)
thorax-coxa muscle receptor organ P fiber, 478
Carybdea spp., 202f
rhopalial pacemaker interactions in, 194–195
Cataglyphis (desert ant), navigation in, 12–13
Catastrophic metamorphosis, in larval nervous system, 88
Catecholamines, 290–291.
See also specific catecholamine
immunoreactivity, in detection of neurons, 258–259
Cation channel, excitatory GABA-gated, 163
CDCH peptides, in female gastropods, 634–635
CDCP (peptides), in female gastropods, 634–635
Centipedes, 97.
See also Myriapoda
Central complex, 42,
54f,
59,
60f
and appendicular control, 46
arthropod, homology to vertebrate basal ganglia, 5,
43
cockroach, head direction cell-like activity in, 12
insect
conservation across species, 12
and sensorimotor processing, 12
in insect path integration and navigation, 46
Central nervous system (CNS), 71–72,
72f.
See also specific organism
in deuterostomes, 91f,
92
nerve tracts/fascicles in, 74f,
75
Central pattern generators (CPGs), 503,
505,
508
circuits
as multilevel systems, 391,
392f
for dorsal-ventral (DV) flexion swimming
homologous neurons in, 446
multifunctionality of, in Nudibranchs, 444
invertebrate
computational modeling and, 392–393
contribution to understanding of other circuits, 397–398
generalizable insights from, 397–398
translational/clinical significance of, 397–398
for left-right (LR) flexion swimming
homologous neurons in, 446
for motor patterns in Aplysia, 542
and plasticity in classical and operant conditioning, 548
for radula motor patterns in Aplysia, 542
respiratory, of Lymnaea, 546,
547t
for swimming, in Nudipleura
homologous neurons in, with different functions in species with different behaviors, 446
timing circuits, 391,
392f
cell-intrinsic oscillations, 393,
394f
cellular and synaptic properties in, 395–396
endogenous bursting and, 393
endogenous oscillators and, 393
half-center oscillator (HCO), 394
postinhibitor rebound (PIR) mechanism and, 394–395,
395f
Centruroides sculpturatus (scorpion), neural ground patterns in, 42f
Cepaea (snail), magnetoreception, in unnatural field, 382
Cephalochordata (cephalochordates, lancelets), 90–91,
91f
brain of, 91f
neuron/cell number in, 252t,
253
central (circadian) pacemakers in, 604
ciliated sensory neurons in, 95,
96f
invaginated nervous system in, 73
larvae, neural tube of, 92
neural architecture of, 73,
91f
neural differentiation in, 95
nonciliated sensory neurons in, 95,
96f
Cephalon, trilobite, 35–36
Cephalopods, 83,
615.
See also specific cephalopod
body patterns of, 702,
702f
chromatic components of, 702,
710
control units, mosaic arrangement of, 707f,
709
pallial nerve and stellate ganglion in, 707f,
708
brain and cognitive complexity in, 18,
248
camouflage in, 702,
702f
and color resemblance to background, 704–705
color blindness in, and color vision, 704–705
deimatic behavior of, 704f,
712
egg laying-like peptide (ELH) in, 620–621
female, reproductive maturity of, 617–618
GnRH dodecapeptide (cephGnRH), and optic gland activity, 624–625
nervous system of
neuron size and number in, 559
neural architecture of, 523
neurosecretory system of vena cava (NSV) in, 623–624
optic gland
light/dark cycle (photoperiod) and, 621–622
postcopulatory (neuro)physiological processes in, 645–646
rapid neural polyphenism in, 701–715
visual processing and, 710
reproductive behavior and its neuroendocrine control, 616–621
reproductive maturity, neuroendocrine control of, 624–625
research on, guidelines and regulations for, 18
sexual dimorphism in, 616
spermatophore transfer in, 626
spermatophoric reaction in, 626–627
synaptic ultrastructure in, 261
visual perception, and body patterning, 703–706
Cephalothorax, of chelicerates, 99–100
Cerebral ganglia, of trochophore larvae, 86,
87f
Chaetognatha (chaetognaths, arrow worms)
basiepithelial nervous system in, 73
Chasmagnathus granulatus (crab), habituation in, 520
Chelicerata (chelicerates), 97
early neurogenesis in, 104f,
105
mushroom bodies in, 47,
47f,
50f
neural development of, 55,
56f
neural ground patterns in, 42f
neuropil arrangements in, 42,
43f
segmental organization of, 99–100
visual system of, 33,
56f
Chelidonura sandrana (sea slug), mating history and mate choice in, 640
Chelyosoma spp., deganglionated, survival without CNS regeneration, 271
Chemoreceptors
in blowfly feeding behavior, 9
tip recording method for, 9–10
Chemosensory transduction
in arthropods, 345–365
advances in (future directions for), 359
speed versus sensitivity in, 357–359
Chengjiangocaris kunmingensis, ventral nervous system of, 42f
Chinese windmill (Byasa alcinous), learning in, 13
Chloride channels, glutamate-gated, 162–163
Choline acetyltransferase (ChAT), 222
Chordata (chordates), 90,
129t
neural architecture of, 91–92
peripheral nervous system in, 95,
96f
sensory nervous system in, 95–97,
96f
Chrysaora spp., vesicle-mediated neurotransmission in, 137
Ciona spp.
neuronal asymmetry in, 271
symmetric neuronal partners in, 266
synaptic organization, 267
Ciona intestinalis
brain of, neuron/cell number in, 252t,
253
neuron number versus neuron types in, 254
Circadian clock(s), 595–614.
See also Pacemaker(s)
core oscillator proteins and, 599–603
fitness advantage of, 595
genes, in metazoan lineages, 599,
600f
research, advances in (future directions for), 607
Circadian clock neuronal network (CCNN)
rhythmic output, control of, 603–607
Citalopram, mechanism of action of, 229
Cladobranchia, phylogeny of, 440,
440f
Classical conditioning, 551–552.
See also Pavlovian conditioning
coincidence detection in, activity-dependent modulation and, 549–550
in invertebrates, summary of, 544t
and plasticity in interneuronal pathways for motor output, 545–546
Cleaner shrimps, memory in, 53
Clione spp., feeding, 402
Clockwork orange (CWO), and molecular clockwork, 600f,
603
Cnidaria (cnidarians), 127f,
128t.
See also Anthozoa;
Cubozoa;
Hydrozoa;
Scyphozoa
cnidocyte discharge, physiology of, 207–208
and evolution of nervous systems, 208–209
genomics, and synaptic transmission, 124,
126
nerve net in, 71,
72f,
185,
209,
514
conduction system compression in, 209
conduction velocity changes, with repetitive activity in individual conducting systems, 190
interneural facilitation in, 190
and neuromuscular efficiency, 209
nervous system cells, 72f
sensory structures of, 210
synaptic organization (networks), 268
synaptic transmission in, 264
vesicle-mediated neurotransmission in, 137
Cockroach(es). See also specific cockroach
adult neurogenesis in, 13
axon regeneration in, 576
leg coordination, neural and mechanical properties and, 429
locomotion in
light sensitivity of, 430
for negotiating obstacles, 430,
431f
magnetic alignment in, 375
magnetic orientation/magnetoreception in, behavioral tests of, 377
magnetoreception in, 372t,
373
motor control, brain circuits in, 430–435
operant conditioning in, 546,
547t
rearing and climbing movements, 430,
431f
synaptic ultrastructure in, 260
Coelenterates
symmetric neuronal partners in, 266
synaptic ultrastructure in, 260
Cognition
complex processes of, gene diversity and, 142–143
evolutionary ecology of, 15
Cognitive neuroscience, 681
Coleoptera, mushroom bodies in, 51
Collembola, 41
brain organization in, 35
Color
background, and cephalopod camouflage, 704–705
discrimination in honeybees, peak shift and, 665–666
Comparative cognition, 15
Compass(es)
magnetic, in invertebrates, 374
orientation, geomagnetic field and, 368,
368f
Computational neuroscience, 4,
5–6
Computational phylogenetics, 125
Consciousness, in invertebrates, 15,
18
Control theory, and flight of fruit fly, 5
Convergent evolution, 32
of mushroom bodies, 51–55
of parallel visual pathways, 55–57,
56f
Convoluta pulchra, frontal organ (frontal glandular complex) of, 87f
Coolidge effect, in gastropods, 640
Copiphora gorgonensis (katydid)
Corella spp., deganglionated, survival without CNS regeneration, 271
Cortex, in subepithelial nervous system, 72f,
73
Corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF), in cephalopods, 625
Crab(s). See also Crustacea (crustaceans); Decapoda (decapods);
specific crab
central (circadian) pacemakers in, 604
legs, funnel canal organs, 479
state-dependent visual processing, 336
synaptic organization (networks), 268
Crassostrea spp.
genomics, and synaptic transmission, 128t,
136f,
143
ionotropic glutamate receptors, 139,
141
transcriptome assembly, 144t,
145
Crassostrea gigas (oyster)
egg laying hormone in, 634
postcopulatory (neuro)physiological processes in, 648
Crayfish. See also Decapoda (decapods);
Procambarus (crayfish)
adult neurogenesis in, 13
axon regeneration in, 576,
580
central (circadian) pacemakers in, 604–605
coxo-basipodite chordotonal organ (CBCO), 477f,
478
leg
stress receptors in, 479,
480f
locomotion in, neural networks controlling, 474–476,
475f
merus-carpus chordotonal organ, 478,
479f
stretch receptor organ, vesicles, 262
synaptic organization (networks), 268
thorax-coxa chordotonal organ (TCCO), 477f,
478
walking by
interleg central coordination in, 475f,
476
Creolimax spp.
transcriptome assembly, 144t,
145
Cricket(s). See also Acheta domestica (cricket)
acoustically triggered avoidance circuits in, 8
acoustic behavior of, 8–9
acoustic communication in, 8
adult neurogenesis in, 13
antipredator behavior in, 9
axon regeneration in, 576
fighting in, and adult neurogenesis, 13
Crinoids (sea lilies), 90
Crop pests, gene editing in, 6
Crowdsourced image annotation, 7
Crustacea (crustaceans), 41,
97.
See also Arthropoda (arthropods)
adult neurogenesis in, 13
behavioral repertoires of, 33
central (circadian) pacemakers in, 604–605
chemosensory appendages, 98f,
99
chemosensory neurons, response thresholds, 357
coxa-basis (CB) joint, 473
coxo-basipodite chordotonal organ (CBCO), 477f,
478
afferents, in interjoint circuits, 483
dactyl sensory afferents, leg coordination by, 483–484,
484f
decapod. See also Decapoda (decapods);
specific crustacean
adult neurogenesis in, 13
early neurogenesis in, 105
hemiellipsoid bodies in, 48
ionotropic glutamate receptors in, 345
ionotropic receptor signal transduction in, G protein–coupled receptors and, 356–357
locomotion in
neural networks controlling, 474–476
sensory-motor circuits involved in, 480–486
(p. 727)
marine, magnetic orientation/magnetoreception in, behavioral tests of, 377–378
merus-carpus (MC) joint, 473
mushroom bodies in, 47f,
49,
50f
myo-chordotonal organ (MCO), 478,
479f
neuromuscular junctions, 265
olfactory receptor neurons of, 49
olfactory system in, 48–49
proprioceptive feedback in control of static posture and walking, 486–490
locomotor network function in, simulation of, 487–490,
489f
segmental organization of, 98f,
99
sensory-motor circuits
antidromic discharges, primary afferent depolarizations and, 485
presynaptic inhibition of primary afferents, 485
primary afferent depolarizations, 485
static posture, control of, proprioceptive feedback in, 486–490
stomatogastric ganglion
neuron number versus neuron types in, 255
pyloric pattern-generating circuit, cellular and synaptic properties, 396
stomatopod, learning in, 33
synaptic ultrastructure in, 260
thorax-coxa (TC) joint, 473
assistance reflex and, 482,
483f
resistance reflex and, 481,
481f
thorax-coxa muscle receptor organ (TCMRO), 476,
478
walking by, 471
control of, proprioceptive feedback in, 486–490
interleg central coordination in, 475f,
476
Crustacean hyperglycemic hormone (CHH), 293
superfamily. See CHH superfamily
Ctenophora (ctenophores, comb jellies), 127f,
128t
neural architecture of, 248
neurotransmission in, 291
vesicle-mediated neurotransmission in, 137
Cubozoa
apparent absence of gap junctions in, 205
medusae
compressed networks of subumbrella, 198–199
exumbrellar nerve nets, 199
neurotransmission in, 207f
rhopalial pacemaker interactions in, 194,
194f
subumbrellar nerve ring, 198,
198f
tentacle conduction systems, 199
neural architecture of, 77
Cuttlefish. See also specific cuttlefish
brain and cognitive complexity in, 18
female, reproductive maturity of, 617–618
large neurons (LN) of, electrophysiological properties of, 562–563,
562f
vertical lobe (VL) of
activity-dependent long-term potentiation (LTP) in, 564–565,
565f
input/output relationships in, 564–567
Cyanea spp.
medusae, swim musculature of, 195
motor nerve net (MNN), synaptic contact in, 192,
192f
Cycle (CYC, CYC/BMAL1), and molecular clockwork, 600f,
603
Cycloneuralia
basiepithelial nervous system in, 73
Cytoskeleton, DLK/Wallenda and, 585
D
Dactylopusia tisboides, central nervous system, tracts, 269
D5amide, precursor genes, in flatworms, 233t
Danaus plexippus (Monarch butterfly)
central (circadian) pacemaker in, 606
magnetic orientation/magnetoreception in, 370,
372t,
373
migration, orientation mechanisms in, 376–377
molecular oscillator design in, 601f
sun-compass navigation in, 12
Danio spp.
genomics, and synaptic transmission, 129t,
136f
transcriptome assembly, 144t
Daphnia spp.
circadian oscillator design in, 602
genomics, and synaptic transmission, 128t,
131
ionotropic glutamate receptors, 139,
140f,
141
transcriptome assembly, 144t,
145
Daphnia pulex, circadian clock in, 595
Darwin, Charles, 5,
14,
18
Decapoda (decapods)
central (circadian) pacemakers in, 604–605
chromatic displays of, 637
locomotion in
joint involvement in, 473
neural networks controlling, 474–476
sensory-motor circuits involved in, 480–486
neuromuscular junctions, 265
neuronal asymmetry in, 271
neuron number versus neuron types in, 255
postcopulatory (neuro)physiological processes in, 645–646
walking by, 471
interleg central coordination in, 475f,
476
DEG/ENaC family, as Caenorhabditis elegans mechanotransducers, 156,
156t
Delayed matching to sample (DMTS) task, for rule learning, 667
Delayed nonmatching to sample (DNMTS) task, for rule learning, 667
Dendronotus iris, left-right (LR) flexion swimming by, 439,
440,
440f,
445–446,
445f
central pattern generator circuit in, 445–446,
445f
half-center oscillator in, 445
Deuterostomia (deuterostomes), 80
basiepithelial nervous system in, 73,
92
brain region homologous to vertebrate midbrain-hindbrain boundary, 91f,
92
invaginated nervous system in, 73,
92
larvae
anterior sensory vesicle of, 91f,
92
visceral ganglion of, 91f,
92
neural architecture and development in, 71,
73,
90–97,
91f
neuron number versus neuron types in, 254
serotonergic neurons in, 86
Deutocerebrum, 55,
56f,
58
organization, in Eumalacostraca and Hexapoda, 54f
Dichlorvos, mechanism of action of, 220
Diclidophora merlangi
dopaminergic transmission in, 224
NPF-like peptides in, 236
Dipleurulae, neural development in, 92–94,
93f
Diptera
central (circadian) pacemakers in, 605–606
neuronal plasticity in, 271
Dishabituation, 514,
525
and sensitization, differentiation of, 525,
526
Diuretic hormone 44, in
Drosophila feeding regulation,
11
Divergent evolution, of arthropod brains, 31–70
DLK/Wallenda
and cytoskeletal organization, 585
Dopamine, 290–291
actions (physiologic effects), 292–293
and aggregation by locusts, 689
in Caenorhabditis elegans, 152
in Drosophila, 224
and feeding control circuit, 11
and leech locomotion, 459
and operant conditioning in Aplysia, 541
in reward circuits, conservation across invertebrate–vertebrate boundary, 5
synthesis of, in locusts, gene regulation of, 690
Dopamine beta-hydroxylase, in flatworms, 224
Dopamine receptor(s), 224–225,
292
and regulation of aggression in Drosophila, 694
Dopamine transporter (DAT), in flatworms, 225
Doridacea, phylogeny of, 440f
Doryteuthis (squid), mating behaviors, 637–638
Doryteuthis plei (squid), rapid neural polyphenism, speed of change in, 704f
Dragonfly
small target motion detector (STMD) neurons in, 328–330,
329f
visual motion integration in descending pathways, 334,
335f
Drosophila melanogaster (fruit fly)
adaptive behavioral choice, 178,
179
adult, behavior, computational analysis of, 6
adult neurogenesis in, 13
aggression in, 686f
dopamine receptors and, 694
methyl-CpG-binding domain (MBD) proteins and, 691–692
neuronal circuitry for, 694
octopamine signaling and, 692,
693
odorant receptor 65a and, 693
tachykinin and its receptor in, 694
transcription factors and, 692
amnesiac gene, habituation studies of, 522
antennal mechanosensory and motor center (AMMC), 306
anterior paired lateral neuron (APL), 678
appendicular development, 59
auditory receptor neurons, frequency preferences of, 308
auditory system of, 303–317
mechano-electrical transduction (MET) channel, 307–308
auditory transduction and amplification in, 306–308
(p. 729)
axonal adaptation to chronic stress, 583
basic leg movements, reflexes and central pattern generators in, 428–429
behavior, neurogenetics of, 171–183
behavioral flxibility, 178,
179
behavioral response to humidity, neural regulation of, 11
bipartite expression systems, 174
brain activity, imaging of, 7
brain of, 72f,
268
neuron/cell number in, 251t,
252
processing of aversive versus appetitive tastes, segregation of, 348–349
CaMKII, habituation studies of, 522
cell types in, libraries of, 253,
256
central nervous system
fasciculations and pathways in, 268–269
ganglionic organization of, 72f
central (circadian) pacemakers in, 605–606
circadian rhythms in, 595
classical conditioning in, 544t
activity-dependent modulation and, 549–550
courtship
tachykinin and its receptor in, 694
courtship conditioning, 178
cryptochrome-dependent phenotypes, 381–382
cVA (cis-vaccenyl acetate) in
as aggregation pheromone, 692
Dsk in, octopamine signaling and, 692
dunce mutant, 172,
178
classical conditioning in, 550
habituation studies of, 521
early neurogenesis in, 104f
ether-a-go-go gene, habituation studies of, 522
extraction of distance information from visual motion, 330–333,
332f
eye, 321f
neuron/cell number in, 252
feeding behavior, 179
neural control system for, 9–11
female, postmating behavior, 178–179
fickle gene, habituation studies of, 522
flying ability, and photopreference, 174–175
foraging gene
habituation studies of, 522
as genetic model system, 4,
6
geotaxis in, cryptochrome and, 381–382
glutamate receptors in, 226
habituation in, 520–522
local interneurons in, 521
Highwire (Hiw), and response to axonal damage, 583
ionotropic glutamate receptors, 139–141
ionotropic receptors (IRs), 354–355
Johnston's organ and JO neurons, 306–308,
307f
Cry gene expression, and magnetoreception, 378
jump response, habituation of, 521
landing response, habituation of, 520–521
larvae
behavior, computational analysis of, 6
learning and memory in
proteins essential for, mushroom body and, 46,
47f,
50,
54f
leg coordination in walking, 424,
425f
lobula plate, motion-sensitive neurons, 172,
175–176
locomotion, plasticity in, classical and operant conditioning and, 547,
547t
magnetic alignment in, 375
magnetic orientation/magnetoreception in, 372t,
373
magnetochronobiology in, 381
mechanosensory stimuli, habituation to, 521
metabolic homeostasis, genes involved in, 9
methyl-CpG-binding domain (MBD) proteins, and aggression, 691–692
molecular oscillator design in, 601f
motor learning, PKC-based plasticity and, 176–177
mushroom body
calyx, synaptic organization of, 261–262
neuron/cell number in, 252
neural activity, in vivo recording of, 7
neuromuscular junctions, 265
neuronal asymmetry in, 271
neuronal plasticity in, 271
neurons
staining/labeling of, 264
odor discrimination, classical conditioning and, 542–543
olfactory receptor–Orco-dependent odor transduction cascades in, debate about, 352–353
olfactory stimuli, habituation to, 521
operant conditioning in, activity-dependent modulation and, 551
optic-glomeruli interneurons (OGINs), in small-field object detection, 330
optogenetic approaches in, 152
(p. 730)
period gene, 172,
602
habituation studies of, 522
peripheral nervous system, 72f
phototactic behavior, 171,
172
place learning from visual landmarks, 12
reporter gene expression, 253,
255
reward circuits, dopamine in, 5
rol sol double mutants, 173,
175
rutabaga mutant, 172,
176
classical conditioning in, 550
habituation studies of, 521
operant conditioning in, 551
Semaphorins/Plexins in, 108
sensory inputs, internal processing and, 175–176
serotonin receptors in, 228
Shaggy gene, habituation studies of, 522
shaker gene, habituation studies of, 522
sleep in, 163,
670
and synaptic homeostasis, 14
slowpoke mutant, habituation studies of, 521–522
social behavior, neural circuitry for, 4–5
species-specific song production in, 4,
8
synapsin gene, habituation studies of, 522
synaptic circuits in, 249
synaptic organization (networks), 267–268
synaptic ultrastructure in, 260
taste hairs, recording from, 9–10
transcriptome assembly, 144t
value-driven decision-making, 174–175
visual motion integration in descending pathways, 334–336,
335f
visual system of, 55,
323f
water intake, neural regulation of, 11
wide-field optic flow processing in, 324–327,
326f
Dugesia spp., tyramine beta-hydroxylase in, 227
Dugesia japonica
cholinergic signaling in, 222
GABAergic transmission in, 225
memory and decision-making in, 59
neoblasts and regeneration in, 84
photoreceptor development in, 85f
serotonin receptors in, 228
Dugesia tigrina, serotonin receptors in, 228
Dung beetles, celestial navigation by, 12
snapshot mechanism for, 12
E
Ear(s)
tympanal, of insects, 305,
308
Earthworms, 83
axon regeneration in, 576
crawling by, 460–462
central pattern generator for, 462
"foot" (point of support) for, 460f,
461
and leech crawling, comparison of, 461
hydrostatic skeleton of, 452,
461
lateral giant fibers (LGFs), 462
medial giant fiber (MGF), 462
synaptic ultrastructure in, 261
Ecdysozoa, 32,
58,
80
neural development in, 88
Echinococcus spp., development, serotonin in, 228
Echinococcus multilocularis
glutamate receptors in, 226
Echinodermata (echinoderms), 90
adult neurogenesis in, 13
basiepithelial nervous system in, 73
direct development in, 94
indirect development in, 94
neural differentiation in, 94
Ectoprocta, 80
larvae, neural development in, 88
Eisenia fetida (red wiggler earthworm)
locomotion in, neuronal control of, 462
Eledone spp.
neurosecretory system of vena cava (NSV) in, 624
oocyte maturation in, 627
Elementary small target motion detector (ESTMD) neurons, in arthropods, 328–330,
329f
Embryogenesis, segment determination during, 55,
56f
Emotion(s), comparative study of, 5
Endocrine disruptor(s), effects in squid, 616
Enkephalin(s), in gastropod osphradium, 643
Entoprocta, 80
larvae, neural development in, 88
neural architecture of, 81
Ependymal cells, of chordate larvae, 94–95,
96f
Ephrins, in axonal pathfinding, 76
Epidermal ectoderm, nematode, 100,
101f
Epinephrine
apparent absence in flatworms, 224
Epithelial sodium channels (ENaC)
as arthropod chemoreceptors, 347,
348f
pickpocket (ppk) family, 347,
349
in insect taste perception, 349
Euarthropoda (euarthropods), 32
articular ground pattern, 36
behavioral repertoires of, 33
brain of, earlist fossils of, 36
from Burgess Shale, tagmosis in, 34f
Eumalacostraca
hemiellipsoid bodies in, 50,
51
Eupentacta fraudatrix, neural development in, 94
Euperipatoides rowelli, neuropil arrangements in, 43f
Euprymna scolopes (squid), 143
Euprymna tasmanica (dumpling squid)
locomotion, after mating, 637
Eurypterida (sea scorpions), visual system of, 33
Evolution
of chemosensory transduction, 346–347
of cryptochrome (Cry), 602
divergent, of arthropod brains, 31–70
of nervous systems
molecular clock evidence of, 208
understanding of, cnidarian contributions to, 209–210
Evolutionary analysis, transcriptome assemblies for, 143–145,
144t
EXP-1, as excitatory GABA-gated cation channel, 163
Eye(s)
arthropod, fossil record of, 37,
38f
development of, in insects/crustaceans, 105
invertebrate, and magnetoreception, 378–379
of platyhelminths, development of, 84,
85f
rhopalial, of box jellyfish, complexity of, 248
single-chambered (camera-type), 320
trilobite, ancestral and derived types, 36
eye53, precursor genes, in flatworms, 232t
Eyestalks, crustacean, 48,
59
F
Fasciola hepatica
dopaminergic transmission in, 224
FLPergic signaling in, 236
Feature detection (FD) cells, in arthropods, 328,
329f
Feedforward circuit, in Caenorhabditis elegans, 152–153,
153f
Feeding behavior, 9–11.
See also specific organism
neural control of, parallels between mammalian and dipteran circuits for, 11
Filopodia, of axon growth cone, 76
Fluoxetine, mechanism of action of, 229
FMRFamide-like immunoreactivity
and egg laying in Caenorhabditis elegans, 162
FMRFamide-like peptides (FLPs)
structure and functions of, 231–236
FMRFamide neuropeptides (FRMFamide family), 142<